Department of Geography & Applied Geography

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Open Access
Vulnerability of agriculture and introduction of smart agricultural practices (SAPs): an assessment in Koch Bihar District, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Das, Satyajit; Lepcha Nee Lama, Indira
The agricultural system is crucial for food, nutrition and livelihood security in India and this sector of India occupies almost 43 per cent of India ׳s total geographical area (Arjun, 2013). The economy of Koch Bihar district is also based on agriculture as the cultivators and agricultural labourers constitute the main work force of this district, they share 32.3% and 34.7% of the total workers respectively (District Census Handbook, Koch Bihar, 2011). The area under marginal holdings with size of less than 1 hectare increased from 1, 28,277 hectares (46.69 per cent of total area) in 2000-01 to 1,32,758 hectares (48.46 per cent of total area) in 2005-06. Reciprocating this, area under medium-sized holdings (having average size of 4 hectares to less than 10 hectares) decreased drastically from 8,805 hectares to 2,094 hectares from 2000-01 to 2005-06. (District Statistical Hand Book, Koch Bihar, 2010-11). Inadequate marketing channels and infrastructure, long intermediation, lack of accurate and timely market information system etc. are also the major challenges to the agricultural marketing system in the district (Bhowmik, 2012). The agricultural activity primarily depends on weather and climatic condition and any variation of its pattern create the vulnerability in this sector. The vulnerability of agriculture leads to low level of production, increase input cost, low net profit etc (Sharma, 2021). The vulnerability ranks of Koch Bihar district is 54 among the 161 districts in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (Sehgal et al.2013). The decision-makers need to address the vulnerability of agriculture for different regions is important as the resources are limited and they also should plan various Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs) based on vulnerability assessment, because the vulnerability of agriculture is possible to minimize by the adaptive capacity (Sehgal et al. 2013). So, there is an urgent need for the adoption of Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs) to enhance the production and productivity through sustainable use of natural resources, reduce the input cost, increase the net profit, and generate employment. For the solution of the problems related to agricultural vulnerability, a detailed study and research work about vulnerability of agriculture and adoption of Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs), is very crucial ( Reddy and Dixit, 2017). Keeping in view these problems, the present study entitled ‗Vulnerability of agriculture and introduction of Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs): An assessment in Koch Bihar District, West Bengal. ‘ Consider six objectives such as (I) To identify the indicators of vulnerability of agriculture in Koch Bihar district. (II) To assess block wise spatial variation in vulnerability of agricultural within the district. (III) To study block wise Smart Agricultural practices (SAPs) and its determinants in Koch Bihar district. (IV) To study block wise farmers' awareness & adoption level of various Smart Agricultural practices (SAPs) in the study area. (V) To study the problems faced by the farmers‗ for adopting Smart Agricultural practices (SAPs) in the district. (VI) To suggest some suggestions for promotion of Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs) in Koch Bihar district. The present study is based on both primary and secondary data. The primary data has been collected by using purposive and random sampling. A schedule has been prepared for the collection of primary data relating to determinants of Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs), awareness level about Smart Agricultural practices (SAPs), adoption of Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs), and to get in depth knowledge about the problems and prospects of Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs). The sample villages are identified during the pilot survey from the 12 CD blocks in which the Smart Agricultural Practices have been run by the Government assistance or by farmer club. During the survey it was observed that paddy tranplanter, thresher, zero tillage practices in maize, mustard cultivation is very significant in the district and has rarely been practiced. For the collection of primary data related to this research work, two sampling technique have been adopted namely purposive sampling and random sampling without replacement. Use of paddy transplanter and thresher, zero tillage, Integrated Farming System (IFS) is practiced more or less in all the blocks of the district. Purposive sampling technique has been used to obtain the villages which follow Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs). During the pilot survey 36 villages were identified among the 1132 villages of Koch Bihar district on the basis of zero tillage and various types of SAPs i.e. use of paddy transplanter, use of seed drill, drip and sprinkler irrigation, vermicompost, Integrated Farming System (IFS), use of mulching, bio-flock fishing and paddy cum fishing, crop insurance, Soil Health Card (SHC), Krishnan Credit Card (KCC) etc. Koch Bihar district has 12 Community Development Blocks and 1132 inhabited villages covering an area of 3387 sq.km. Samples have been taken from the selected 36 villages for the assessment of Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs). To obtain the primary data at the household level random sampling technique without replacement has been used. For determining the sample size of unknown population, Cochran‘s formula (1963) was used. By applying 5% assumed population to the Cochran‘s formula, it gives the value of 73 as number of samples for each block which has been rounded off to 75. Thus 75×12 = 900 samples have been taken from the 36 villages. The number of samples at village level has been selected on the basis of how many villages having followed Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs) in each block. The secondary data has been collected by reviewing various research articles related to the present work. The essential secondary data for monthly maximum temperature, monthly minimum temperature, mean monthly rainfall; net sown area/geographical area, productivity of food grains, average landholding of farmer, population density, organic carbon (C) content of soil; irrigated area, Human Development Index, cropping intensity, livestock density, villages electrified, villages with paved roads have been used for the present research work. The data has been collected from West Bengal District Statistical Hand Book (2015), Koch Bihar Bureau of Economics & Statistics (Government of West Bengal 2017), District Census Handbook (2011), District Gazetteer (2011), District Agricultural Annual Plan 2021, Krishi Vigyan Kendra (KVK) Koch Bihar, Agriculture Development Offices (ADO) of Koch Bihar district, research articles, reports etc. There are seven chapters in the thesis. The first chapter covers the significance, objective, hypotheses, sampling structure, data sources and methodology of the current study. The physical and socio-economic background of the study area is covered in the second chapter. In this chapter the agro-climatic location, geology, relief, drainage features, soils, and natural vegetation; climatic factors like rainfall and temperature, different extreme events; land holdings, population density, and KCC holder farmer, status of road connectivity at the block level also described. The third chapter deals with the various indicators and spatial variation of agricultural vulnerability in the study area. The fourth chapter depicted the socio-economic status and different types smart agricultural practices in the study area and also identify the different indicators that determine the adoption of smart agricultural practices (SAPs). The fifth chapter discusses the awareness and adoption level of various smart agricultural practices in different block of the study area. The chapter six addresses the main issues relating to the adoption of smart agricultural practices that makes remedial actions to resolve the issues and implement some new policy for the promotion of such smart technique in the study area in future. The chapter seven described the main findings of the research work as well as some suggestion strategies for the policy maker to development of this sector that will be important to the farming community of Koch Bihar district. Koch Bihar district belong to Terai-Tista Alluvial Zone which is fall in Eastern Himalayan Agro climatic region. The climatic condition of this district is humid to peri-humid with average 250–300 mm annual rainfall and the summer and winter temperature is in an around 33°C as the highest in the month of May, while the lowest temperature is 7°C in the month of January(SATSA, Koch Bihar District Unit). Physiographically there are two parts in this district, one is active alluvial plain another is recent alluvial plain and both are formed by Tista river. In orderly the soil of this study area is fall under Entisol and there are 4 soil series are found i.e. Lotafela, Matiarkuthi, Balarampur and Rajpur seriers (SATSA, Koch Bihar District Unit). The elevation of the study area varying between 30-50 meters above mean sea level is essentially a flat region with slight South-Eastern slope along which the main rivers (Tista, Torsa, Kaljani, Gadadhar, Raidhak, etc.) flow. Geographically this district located in the north-Easter part of West Bengal. The latitudinal and longitudinal extensions of the study area are 25°57ʹ57ʹʹN to 26°32ʹ58ʹʹN and 88°45ʹ28ʹʹE to 89°51ʹ50ʹʹE respectively. Total geographical area of this district is 338700 ha (3387 sq.km) of which 1146 ha is net sown area and 246491 ha is gross cropped area. There are 4 agricultural sub-divisions which occupies 12 blocks and 128 Gram Panchayats with 1132 inhabited villages (Census of India, 2011). Politically the northern and eastern part of Koch Bihar district is bounded by Jalpaiguri, Alipurduar district and the Assam state respectively. While the Southern, western, South-Western parts of the district are bounded by Bangladesh. Agricultural vulnerability defined as the latent probability of loss and damage of an agricultural system associated with climatic variability and the occurrence of an extreme climatic event, and the susceptibility of any individual or social group to its impacts. So, the vulnerability of agriculture is function of climatic exposure, sensitivity and adaptive capacity within the system and also the degree to which the agricultural system is susceptible to, or unable to cope with the adverse effects of climatic variability. The term exposure describes how much and how a system is exposed to major climatic variability. Sensitivity is the measure of how much a system is changed or impacted by internal, external, or occasionally both types of disruptions. Adaptive capacity is also defined as the potential or ability of a system, region or community to adjust to the effects or impacts of climate change. In case of exposure the blocks of Haldibari, Mekhliganj, Mathabhanga-I, Mathabhanga-II, Koch Bihar –I, Koch Bihar-II, Sitalkuchi and parts of Sitai, Dinhata-I, Tufanganj-I shows high to very high composite exposure ranging from 0.524 to 0.868. The higher rate of minimum temperature in kharif and rabi seasons and higher intensity of low and high rainfall in kharif season has resulted in extreme exposure in these blocks. Moderate to low exposure are found in south eastern and eastern parts of the district comprising of Tufanganj-II and Dinhata-II blocks with value ranging from 0.008 to 0.523. The reasons for low exposure in the above mentioned blocks are due to lower rate of change in maximum and minimum temperatures in kharif and rabi seasons and very low to moderate rainfall variability. In case of sensitivity the central and western parts of the district namely Mathabhanga-I (0.776), Mathabhanga-II (0.755), Sitalkuchi (0.727), Koch Bihar-I (0.755) are very highly sensitive owing to highest percentage of marginal and small farmer, high population density, low organic carbon content. The remeaning blocks Tufanganj-I(0.674), Tufanganj-II(0.667), Dinhata-I(0.687), Dinhata-II(0.689), Koch Bihar –II(0.645), Mekhliganj(0.617), Haldibari (0.406) and Sitai (0.472) have moderate to low sensitivity owing to average net sown area, productivity and low population density. The adaptive capacity in Koch Bihar-II, Dinhata-I, Dihata-II, Tufanganj-I, Haldibari blocks of the district is very low because of lower percentage of irrigated area and cropping intensity. The adaptive capacity is low in the blocks of Koch Bihar –I and Mathabhanga-II. There is moderate adapative capacity in Sitalkuchi and Tufanganj-II blocks. However Halibari, Mekhliganj, Sitai and Mathabhanga-I blocks shows in higher adaptive capacity comparatively, because More Female work participation in agricultural activity, more Irrigated area, more livestock density and frequently contact with extension services by the farmer. So the overall agricultural vulnerability ( Normalized ) very high in the blocks of Tufanganj-II (0.826), Tufanganj-I (0.833), Koch Bihar- II (0.838), Koch Bihar- I (1.00) due to high exposure and sensitivity and lower adaptive capacity. Agricultural vulnerability is high in the blocks of Dinhata-I (0.702) and Dinhata-II (0.743). Moderate agricultural vulnerability is found in Mekhliganj (0.292) and Sitalkuchi (0.458) block. The agricultural vulnerability is low in Sitai (0.00), Haldibari (0.0) and Mathabhanga –I (0.211). Even through these blocks have high exposure and sensitivity they have higher adaptive capacity. Smart Agriculture Practices (SAPs) are those practices, which increase farmers׳ income and agricultural productivity in a sustainable way that build resilience and capacity of agricultural systems to adapt or mitigate the adverse effects of the climatic variability, and also reduce the greenhouse gases while enhancing national food security. So, Smart Agriculture Practices (SAPs) are the alternative for food and livelihood to cope up with the agricultural vulnerability and helpful in mitigation the adverse effects of climate change and variability. It is clear from the above study that the adoption of Smart Agricultural Practices are strongly determined by the education, land type, land holding mass media exposure and extension contact that was obviously significant in all blocks of Koch Bihar district. Age group of more than 50 years, female gender, and neuclear family type are slightly negativily associated with Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs) adoption, but there was no significant association because the regression models were insignificant in those cases. Findings clearly revealed the most aware as well as adopted SAPs are use of HYV seed, crop rotation and intercropping, Integrated Farming System (IFS), plant protection measure. On the other hand the least aware and adopted SAPs are soil test and use of Soil Health Card, mulching, zero tillage, Information and Communication technologies (ICTs), e-marketing, polyhouse vegetable and rainwater harvesting, crop insurance, smart animal husbandry. From the overall analysis it can be concluded that the awareness level of each smart agricultural practice is higher than the adoption of that respective practice in every block of this district. From the overall analysis it has been observed that though there are some prospects of Smart Agricultural Practices as it helps to build the agricultural system more resilient to climate change to reduce the production cost and increased yield and give better economic returns to the farmers. But the farmer of the district faces a number of problems in adoption of Smart Agricultural practices (SAPs). The most prominent problem is small and fragmented landholding for adopting integrated farming System (IFS) and different farm power machinery because most of the farmers are marginal and small farmer. The other issues such as scarcity of storage, agro processing unit and cooperative organization at local level, Lack of farm equipments and Inadequate farm inputs, lack of getting proper information and knowledge are also the barrier to adopt smart agricultural practices in the study area. The economy of the Koch Bihar district is basically agrarian type and the agricultural activity being practiced by the farmers is become vulnerable. However, some Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs) are implemented by the central Government as National Initiative on Climate Resilient Agriculture (NICRA) project to minimize this challenged in this district but the farmers are facing various problems to adopt and utilize these practices properly. So, the present study is mainly concentrated to identify the indicators of agricultural vulnerability, to assess the variation in vulnerability of agricultural and also to identify farmers` awareness and the problems regarding adoption of Smart Agricultural Practices (SAPs) facing by the farmers in every blocks of this district. The present study is unique in this regard and the outcome of the present study surely give some inputs to the planners to implement new programs and project to cope up from the vulnerability in agricultural activity in Koch Bihar district.
Open Access
Impact of climate variability and human activities on alteration of runoff in South Koel River Basin, Eastern India
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Mondal, Subrata; Paul, Rupak Kumar
IMPACT OF CLIMATE VARIABILITY AND HUMAN ACTIVITIES ON ALTERATION OF RUNOFF IN SOUTH KOEL RIVER BASIN, EASTERN INDIA The present work was carried out to trace the impact of climate variability and human activities on the alteration of the runoff in the South Koel River basin in Eastern India under the tropical monsoon climate. The whole work was designed in view to achieve three specific objectives. The first objective was to assess the temporal variability of rainfall and runoff since 1973 in terms of trend and step change in the South Koel River Basin. The second one was to assess the relative contribution of climate variability and human activities to cause the alteration of runoff in the study area. The third objective was to capture the runoff sensitivity to changes in individual land use land cover classes with special reference to forest cover, agricultural land use, and urban built-up area in the concerned river basin. The required databases include weather parameters which were collected from NASA Power Data Access; Land use and land cover (LULC) data which were prepared by classifying Landsat TM and OLI images; Soil data that was collected from ISRIC-WDC; and runoff data that was collected from Central Water Commission, Govt. of India. As per the first objective, rainfall and runoff are two separate response variables which were analyzed separately against time to detect step change and trend. Buishand U test, Buishand Range test, and Standard Normal Homogeneity test were applied for step change analysis of normally distributed series; otherwise, Pettitt’s test and Sequential Mann-Kendall test were applied. Mann-Kendal test was applied for detecting trends in the series having no autocorrelation; otherwise, the Modified Mann-Kendal test was applied for capturing the trend. The magnitude of the trend was measured by Sen’s slope estimator. The normality was checked by the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and Shapiro-Wilk test, while the lag1 autocorrelation was checked by Pearson’s correlation coefficient (r). To achieve the second objective, the whole study period (1981-2018) was divided into the reference period and the interference period based on the change point detected in the step change analysis. The SWAT model was calibrated to LULC of the reference period, and the model was run with meteorological data of the same period designated as ‘Sim 1’. Another SWAT model was calibrated to LULC of the interference period, and the model was run using meteorological data of the interference period called ‘Sim 2’. So, the mean runoff difference between Sim 2 and Sim 1 was supposed to be the total runoff change caused by climate variation and human intervention. On the other hand, the SWAT model calibrated to LULC of the reference period was again run with meteorological data of the interference period, known as ‘Sim 3’. Any difference in mean runoff between Sim 3 and Sim 1 would be due to climate variation, and the difference between Sim 2 and Sim 3 reflects the change due to human interference. The significance of the mean runoff difference was evaluated by t-Test, and the effect size was also computed by Cohen’s d. To achieve the third objective, the whole basin was divided, based on uniformity in LULC class, into homogeneous units, what is technically called Hydrologic Response Unit (HRU). Each HRU of forest cover, agricultural land, and built-up area were separately classified into four categories based on their areal coverage, and runoff was simulated for them. Then ANCOVA model was run to judge whether the mean runoff of each of the three LULC classes varied across their respective size groups. Any significant difference reflects the runoff sensitivity to the size group of the respective LULC class. As per the results, no significant change points and trends were found in the rainfall series. The monsoon and annual runoff series, on the other hand, showed significant step change and decreasing trend. Buishand tests detected 2001 as a change point, while the Standard Normal Homogeneity test identified 2008. The rate of decrease in monsoon runoff was 4.731-5.29 mm/yr., whereas that of annual runoff was 5.126-5.292 mm/yr. The trendless rainfall and decreasing runoff tendency imply that rainfall is not the driving force for the alteration of runoff; rather, human intervention is playing an effective role in such change. The SWAT model output and t-Test show that rainfall caused the increase in runoff from the reference period to the interference period, although its contribution was not statistically significant at all at a 5% significance level, whereas LULC was found to have caused a decrease in runoff significantly at the same significance level. Their combined effect caused an overall decrease in the runoff by 195.87 and 224.64 mm based on change points 2001 and 2008, respectively. The respective contribution of rainfall on runoff increase was 84.29 mm (43.03%) and 58.13 mm (25.88%), while that of LULC on decreasing runoff was 280.15 mm (143.03%) and 282.77 mm (125.88%). The respective effect size of LULC impact was huge (Cohen’s d = 2.27) and very large (Cohen’s d = 1.95). The interesting feature that was deduced is the forest cover decreased by 7.04% from reference to the interference period while the agricultural land increased by 4.25% during the same period; this kind of LULC change is supposed to increase runoff, but instead of increase, the runoff was reduced. It was substantiated by facts collected through field investigation. Through field survey, it was known that in the last 15-20 years, the local farmers have been cultivating more water-consuming high-yielding crop varieties, and the canal was commissioned in 2008-2009 for diverting flow for irrigation, which together effectively reduced the runoff in the basin. ANCOVA results, in which rainfall was controlled, showed that runoff was sensitive to the size class of forest and that of agricultural land, whereas runoff was not sensitive to built-up areas. This might be due to the limited areal coverage of urban built-up and its scattered distribution within the basin. However, a similar result was produced by ANOVA, which did not eliminate the rainfall effect. This similarity in both results also implies that human intervention is more important than rainfall for causing alteration in runoff. However, the threshold value beyond which runoff changes is determined to be 1.35 km2 for forest cover and 1.30 km2 for agricultural land. So, the evidences are strong enough to conclude that the climate of the South Koel River basin remains stationary over time, whereas runoff is getting reduced day by day, and human intervention is playing a pivotal role over here. The reorientation of agricultural technology may be an effective strategy to stop the runoff reduction and to get sustainable stream flow. The present study did not incorporate the variability of rain intensity and its impact on stream flow which needs further investigation to gain a comprehensive understanding of the basin hydrologic system. However, it is expected that the findings may provide the relevant database and guiding principle in formulating a strategic plan for making stability in the runoff yield of the basin.
Open Access
Impact of soil properties on agricultural land use pattern in Siliguri Sub-Division, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Sarkar, Abhisek; Mandal, D. K.
The Ph. D research conducted on the topic "Impact of Soil Properties on Agricultural Land Use Pattern of Siliguri Sub-Division" delves into a comprehensive exploration of the intricate relationship between soil properties and their profound influence on agricultural land utilization in the unique agro-climatic context of Siliguri Sub-Division. This study assumes paramount significance given the growing global demand for sustainable and efficient land use practices to ensure food security and environmental preservation. Siliguri Sub-Division, situated at the foothills of the Himalayas and characterized by diverse topographical features, presents a challenging yet promising environment for agricultural activities. Recognizing the pivotal role of soil properties in determining the success of crop cultivation, this research embarks on an extensive analysis encompassing multiple aspects of soil, ranging from texture and pH to nutrient content and drainage patterns. Through a meticulously structured methodology involving field surveys, laboratory analyses, and advanced statistical modeling techniques, the research seeks to unravel the intricate interactions between soil characteristics and crop growth outcomes. The findings of this study in the first chapter offer invaluable insights on the introduction and general background of the Siliguri Sub-Division. It deals with location and physical setup of the study area, how the soils of the study area are made by the depositional word of the rivers flowing down from the Himalayan Mountains. This fertile soil has influenced growth of various types of vegetation, tea gardens, wildlife sanctuaries, agricultural lands, infrastructures and housing complex, etc. there are some problem in this area regarding the growth of agriculture. Some major problems were discussed in this chapter and with some aims and objective and a frame work was setup and four hypotheses were laid down to analysis the soil properties and bring out the solutions. There are some methodologies provided like the collection of soils, calculating agricultural productivity index by following the scheme of Mohammad Shafi. USDA land capability classification was done to show the degree of arable and non-arable land of this region. With the help of Kendall’s W coefficient, farmer’s perception in the adoption of modern agricultural technologies were derived. All these data were incorporated in the ArcGIS software and maps were prepared. And in the last some literature reviews were done and references were incorporated. The second chapter acumen the researcher with valuable information about the soil properties and agricultural land use. It provides us information about the suitability of various soil types for specific crop varieties. By systematically evaluating soil properties, the research provides local farmers with pragmatic recommendations for optimal crop selection based on soil compatibility. This informed decision-making process not only enhances agricultural productivity but also contributes to the sustainable utilization of land resources. Each soil properties and its impact on agricultural land use were discussed, how the soil properties were enhancing or limiting the growth of agriculture. Moreover, the research delves into the repercussions of improper soil management practices, highlighting the potential adverse consequences of soil erosion, degradation, and nutrient imbalances on overall crop sustainability and yield. In the third chapter the research investigates the intricate relationship between soil properties and agricultural productivity, focusing on their reciprocal influence and the mechanisms underlying their interactions. By employing a comprehensive approach that combines field studies, laboratory analyses, and advanced modeling techniques, the study aims to elucidate the specific ways in which soil characteristics such as texture, nutrient content, pH, and organic matter influence crop yield, quality, and overall agricultural output. The soils were laboratory tested and their fertility was classified. API of M. Shafi was incorporated to lay out the agriculturally productive region and a map was prepared on its basis. And on the basis of API of M. Shafi different GP was classified into different levels of agricultural productivity. The fourth chapter of this research delves into the critical domain of USDA Land Capability Classification and its pivotal role in guiding effective agricultural land use planning. This Ph. D study aims to comprehensively evaluate the USDA classification system's applicability in diverse geographic contexts, considering its implications for sustainable land management and agricultural productivity. Through a combination of geospatial analysis, field assessments, and stakeholder consultations, the research endeavors to assess the accuracy and relevance of the classification system in modern land use planning scenarios. By addressing key questions related to soil fertility, topography, drainage, and erosion potential, the study aims to provide practical insights that can inform land use policies, mitigate environmental risks, optimize crop selection, and enhance overall land productivity. This chapter also deals with the Taxonomic classification of soil provide a layout in the form of map on the basis of such classification. The findings of this research contribute to advancing the understanding of how USDA land capability classification can effectively inform agricultural land use planning strategies, fostering more resilient and productive agro-ecosystems. The fifth chapter discusses the research's significance extends beyond the realm of agricultural practice, resonating with policy formulation and land use planning and management. By elucidating the intricate connections between soil properties and land utilization, the study provides crucial insights for policymakers and land planners to devise effective strategies for sustainable land use. Through a comprehensive review of best practices, technology adoption, and policy implications, the study seeks to contribute to the development of context-specific solutions for enhancing soil quality, optimizing resource use efficiency, and ensuring long-term agricultural viability. The outcomes of this research hold significant potential for informing agricultural policies, promoting sustainable farming practices, and safeguarding food security in an ever-changing global landscape. The research also underscores the importance of adopting context-specific approaches, recognizing the nuanced interplay of soil properties within Siliguri Sub-Division's unique environment. The sixth chapter deals with the culmination of extensive research and rigorous analysis, this Ph. D study presents significant findings that shed light on critical aspects of the chosen research topic. Through a comprehensive investigation encompassing field studies, data collection, and advanced methodologies, this research has uncovered novel insights into the subject matter. The major findings highlight key patterns, correlations, and trends that were previously unexplored, contributing to the overall body of knowledge in the field. These findings have broader implications, offering valuable information for policy-makers, practitioners, and researchers alike. Building upon these findings, the study concludes with a synthesis of the research outcomes, emphasizing their relevance in addressing the research questions and objectives. A thorough perspective on the subject is provided by the conclusions drawn, which are backed up by substantial data and rigorous analysis. The report also describes potential directions for further research and suggests ways that the results might be used in real-world situations. In conclusion, this research makes major contributions to our understanding of the subject and the implications it raises, laying the groundwork for future scholarly inquiry and well-informed decision-making. In essence, the Ph. D research on the "Impact of Soil Properties on Agricultural Land Use Pattern of Siliguri Sub-Division" serves as a pioneering endeavor in addressing the critical nexus between soil properties and crop cultivation. Through a rigorous exploration of soil characteristics, the study not only empowers local farmers with informed decision-making tools but also informs policymakers and land planners in their pursuit of sustainable development. As a comprehensive analysis with far-reaching implications, this research stands as a testament to the enduring significance of understanding soil properties in shaping the agricultural landscape and ensuring food security in Siliguri Sub-Division and beyond.
Open Access
A study on socio economic conditions of women beedi workers in Tufanganj Subdivision of Koch Bihar District, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Karmakar, Sangita; Roy, Ranjan
Introduction Beedi industry is predominantly an unorganised sector in India. A large number of people belonging to poor socio-economic backgrounds have chosen beedi rolling as their occupation to support their families. In our country women make up nearly 90 percent of total employment in beedi industry. Thus the beedi industry has helped them to escape from the vicious cycle of poverty. But the contractual nature of employment, low wage rate and involvement of middlemen has made the industry more vulnerable. Women and children engaged in beedi industry face abuse, financial discrimination and health hazards. Workers involved in beedi rolling activity are at a high risk of tuberculosis, asthma and others. However, at the time of job uncertainty, many people don‟t consider these health hazards when making decisions about their livelihood. Therefore, it is necessary to identify the socio-economic factors which are responsible for the backwardness of such workers engaged in beedi industry. This thesis intends to focus on the livelihood status of women beedi workers in Tufanganj Subdivision of Koch Bihar district. Koch Bihar is a socio-economically backward district in West Bengal and predominantly an agricultural district. This study mainly concentrates on the social, economic and health condition of the women beedi workers in Tufanganj Subdivision as Tufanganj Subdivision is a special economic zone (SEZ) of beedi industry in Koch Bihar district. Objectives The main objectives of the study are: 1. To assess the socio-economic conditions of women beedi workers in Tufanganj Subdivision. 2. To assess the impact of beedi rolling on health condition of women beedi workers in the study area. 3. To evaluate the implementation status of legal provisions and schemes for the welfare of women beedi workers. 4. To find out their problems and suggest remedial measures for the upliftment of socio - economic status of women beedi workers. Hypothesis To fulfill the objectives following hypothesis have been taken: 1. Educational level of female beedi worker plays a key role in determining her number of child birth. 2. Level of income of women beedi worker has significant impact on family decision- making. 3. The health condition of women beedi workers is associated with hours of beedi rolling. Methodology This study is based on both primary and secondary data which are further analysed with the help of appropriate statistical tools and techniques. Tufanganj Subdivision has been selected as the study area and particularly women beedi workers were selected for the study as they are the best representative of the entire beedi worker community. A total number of 560 respondents were selected from various parts of Tufanganj Subdivision. Both rural and urban beedi workers were selected for the study to show the degree of deprivation of basic socio- economic opportunities among them. Findings Study has revealed that the socio-economic status of women beedi workers in both rural and urban areas is very low. Women engage themselves in beedi rolling at an early age. Workers below 20 years age and more than 60 years of age both have been found higher in rural areas than urban areas. It indicates that the rural young women are more vulnerable to engage in beedi rolling activity than urban women. Further, the literacy rate is very less among the women beedi workers in the study area and it has been discovered that in rural areas higher educated women have also opted beedi rolling as their occupation due to absence of alternate job opportunities. The quality of the dwelling places shows their poor economic condition. Only 5.71 percent households monthly income exceeds >15000 as most of the households do not have any fixed income. Even to insure their everyday expenses, the majority of households are in debt. Therefore, it is revealed that the beedi workers' poor financial situation has a negative impact on their standard of living in the study area. The piece rate system compels them to roll beedi for the entire day. Study shows that 43.57 percent workers are engaged in beedi rolling for 8 to 10 hours, in a single day. Workers are also deprived of getting wage rates as per government prescribed rate and only 20.54 percent have reported a wage rate of more than 150/-. The contractual nature of employment has made their monthly income more vulnerable as it is totally controlled by the middleman. Study has also revealed that both rural and urban beedi worker households have moderate income inequality and rural households have a little bit higher income inequality than urban households. The main reason behind this may be the intensity and incidence of poverty among beedi workers in rural areas is higher than in urban areas. Livelihood security index also shows that beedi workers from both the rural (0.3864) and urban areas (0.4686) are less secure in terms of livelihood conditions and rural beedi workers are facing an extremely insecure livelihood status. Particularly, economic security is highly vulnerable situation in rural areas. Study has also revealed that beedi workers suffer from various health issues due to direct inhalation of tobacco and sitting in the same posture for long hours. Study has found that various types of respiratory and musculoskeletal problems are very much common among the respondents and severity of health hazards is higher in case of higher age, heavy workload and long years of beedi rolling. Various welfare programmes for beedi workers have been introduced by the state and central government but the utilization of these schemes is very minimal. Majority of the home based beedi workers are deprived of government welfare schemes because the employers consider them as self-employed as they work from their home. It indicates the existence of a wide gap between the policies for their development and their implementation. The level of awareness among beedi workers about various schemes is poor in the study area. 52.50 percent women workers were moderately aware of only the provisions of health under Beedi Worker Welfare Scheme. Study found that the workers with higher level of literacy and media exposure are comparatively more aware of various government welfare programs allotted for them. Exploitation by middlemen, inadequate supply of raw material, unhealthy working conditions, irregularities of wage payment, problems to access identity cards and heavy workload have been identified as major problems faced by women beedi workers in the study area. So, it can be said that mere development plans and policies are not sufficient for the development of such vulnerable people; rather emphasis should be given on their proper implementation.
Open Access
Human and river interactions in Jalpaiguri villages along the Tista river of Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar District, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Mitra, Rajib; Mandal, D.K.
1. Introduction Due to its limited supply and vulnerability, issues over water allocation are becoming increasingly serious on a global scale as a result of population increase and rising income levels. It should be necessary to manage the water resources judiciously, which is helpful to the riparian inhabitants and the river's natural environment. The river water plays a beneficial activity to the adjacent people along it. Therefore, the river basin can be called the most suitable location for economic prosperity. Without supportive factors, the dwellers can't settle along the river. Human-Resource symbiosis is a common phenomenon in a river basin. Human and river interactions have a significant impact on the environment and societies around the world. The socio-economic life of the people of West Bengal, mainly in the northern part influenced by the Tista. Different aspect of the social life of the riparian people along the Tista River is interrelated with the river. The government focuses on the River Tista to utilise its water by hydroelectric power generation, facilitate irrigation for agricultural development, increasing the tourism industry and recreational activities for the benefit and better opportunities of the stakeholders. In this present research work, attempts have been made by the researcher to explain the people's interactions with the River Tista and its impact on their socio-economic life. Continued population growth in the riparian areas of the river and interferences on the health of the river caused a state of environmental problems throughout the river in West Bengal. The Tista Barrage Project has introduced negative impact on the surrounding environment. The morphology and hydrological character of the river have been changed as a result of human-river interaction processes prevailing in this area. The Baikunthapur and Apalchand forest in this region has shown a decreasing trend in their area caused by human encroachment scenarios in the past fifty years. The pilot survey by the researcher in some selected places of the study area revealed that the region faced the problem of improper right bank and left bank canal management at several places, abnormal waste dumping activities in the river, growing up settlements in the river bed, and the huge amount of river bed material extraction activities. The char areas of Chengmari, Takimari, Kathua, Boalmari, Nandanpur, Domohani, Sisuabari, Chat Rarpur, Nijtaraf, Bajejama Khasbas have been congested by the inhabitants, and they have changed the land use pattern and interferences the natural environment of the river. The main goals of the current study are: (i) To study on the physical set up of the region and socio-economic condition of the riparian inhabitants for better understanding of human and river interactions in the study area, (ii) To assess the role of the Tista River on the livelihood of the riparian inhabitants, (iii) To assess the effect of the riverine hazards like floods, bank erosion and river channel shifts on socio-economic life of the riparian inhabitants, (iv) To assess the human interferences on the Tista River at several sites and (v) To study on perceptions of the riparian inhabitants concerning the Tista River. The hypothesis of this research taken into consideration are: (i) There are livelihood dependencies of the riparian inhabitants on the River Tista, (ii) The inhabitants have suffered from occasional floods, bank erosion and river channel shifts, (iii) Human interferences have affected the nature of the River Tista and (iv) Awareness of the riparian inhabitants have affected their living standard. 2. Study area The present study has been confined to the riparian villages along the Tista River, which occupy the Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar Districts in West Bengal of India. In Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar District along the Tista River total number of riparian villages considered for this study is 85 (23 from the right bank and 62 from the left bank). Physically, the study area is characterised by 30-53 m elevation class, <20 slope class, very low ruggedness index (0-3.87), sand, silt and clay in lithological units (54%), geomorphologically piedmont alluvial plain (44%), very high annual rainfall, average maximum and minimum temperatures vary from 25.42 to 29.480C and 11.32 to 18.740C, and dominance of fluventic eutrochrepts (fine loamy) soil taxonomic character. On the other side, among the selected riparian villages, 69 villages are inhabited villages, and 16 are uninhabited villages (based on Census 2011). The total population of the selected riparian villages is 232742, and the total number of households is 52138. Socio-economically, the riparian villages have dominant SC population, low mean literacy rate (56.96%), Hindus constitute the majority in religion, mean percentage of total, main and marginal workers are 41.29%, 29.12% and 13.12%, mean percentage of net sown area is 59.28%, 39 villages had irrigation facilities, most of the villages (45) located far away from banks, and only in 28 villages the agricultural marketing society facility is available. The hydrodynamic characteristics of the region in West Bengal are controlled by the Himalayan Rivers and Tista Barrage Project at Gajaldoba. 3. Data sources and methodology This research employed a multidisciplinary approach that incorporated both quantitative and qualitative techniques to attain its goals. In the targeted riparian villages along the Tista River, comprehensive fieldwork was carried out, including interviews, household surveys, and direct observations. The obtained data were analysed using thematic analysis and statistical techniques, providing a comprehensive understanding of the human-river interactions in this region. • To investigate the physical set up (elevation, ruggedness, lithology, geomorphology, climatic condition, and soil characteristics) and socio-economic condition (demography, literacy, sex ratio, religious orientations, caste composition, occupational structure, working population, net sown area, irrigation status) of the proposed area, data were obtained from the various documents, maps, and information of different published sources. • The role of the Tista River on the livelihood of the riparian inhabitants has been assessed by extensive and regular household survey carried out by the researcher during 2020-2022 based on Mullick et al. (2013), Baki et al. (2015) and Islam et al. (2018). The sample size for the primary survey has been estimated based on Cochran's sampling method (1963) for the finite population. The total sample size was considered 400 (responded: 381 and non-responded: 19), and the stratified random sampling technique was adopted for considering the respondent. The sample size for each village was subsequently determined using proportional allocation techniques. On the basis of certain parameters, viz., agro-climatic condition, the role of Tista in the economy of the inhabitants (natural indicator), general livelihood scenario in the overall region, demography (human indicator), inhabitants' connection with the Tista in terms of spirituality, customs, cultures (social indicator) that observed in the pilot survey, the researcher has taken into account five livelihood dimensions, viz., social, economic, physical, environmental and risk to find out the role of the Tista River on livelihood of the riparian inhabitants. The Structural Equation Model (SEM) of different livelihood dimensions of the inhabitants has been constructed using Amos Graphics software (version 21). • To assess the nature and extent of the riverine hazards, several works have been conducted, viz., Flood susceptibility zonation mapping of the study area using Saaty's Analytical Hierarchy Process method, channel shifting risk-prone areas mapping and bank erosion vulnerability zonation mapping of the study area. Besides these, to know the severity of the riverine hazard on the socio-economic life of the riparian inhabitants, livelihood vulnerability index (LVI) calculation for the riparian villages has been conducted based on data obtained from the household survey by employing the LVI and LVI-IPCC framework of Hahn et al. (2009). • The direct and indirect effects of human interventions on the Tista River have been assessed by the researcher. The indirect effects include the detailed analysis of increasing population pressure, land use change scenario and groundwater fluctuations in the riparian villages of the Tista. On the other side, direct effects were studied by investigating the river bed materials extraction activity, the negative impact of the Tista Barrage Project, interventions of the Tista River by embankments and spars, water quality assessment and channel transformation and habitat modification of the Tista River using River Habitation Survey (RHS) method used by Raven et al. (1998). • The household survey data regarding the level of agreeness and disagreeness of the riparian inhabitants was also used to evaluate the perceptions of the inhabitants concerning the Tista River based on Eniko (2002), Birkholz (2009), Strydom (2009), Groot et al. (2009). In respect of this purpose, eight constructs were formulated, and their reliability was tested by observing the value of Cronbach's alpha. The eight constructs are: (a) Perception of communities' association with the linear nature of the Tista River, (b) Perception concerning the availability of information on the Tista River, (c) Understanding the benefits (goods and services) and perception connection to use aspects of the Tista River, (d) Perception concerning the significance or value of the Tista River, (e) Perception concerning the health of the Tista River, (f) Perception of human interferences on Tista River, (g) Perception on conservation and management of the Tista River and its water resources, and (h) Understanding the inhabitants' opinion on participation in Tista River management activities. 4. Results and discussion • Role of Tista River on the livelihood of the riparian inhabitants The socio-economic life of the people has been formed with the diversified livelihood pattern of an area. The study area is agro-climatically rich, and Tista irrigation canals, with their distributaries, have made input to develop the agricultural prosperity of the region. Several positive and negative variables have affected riparian inhabitants' different dimensions of livelihood. Here inhabitants are also socio-culturally connected with the river, and hence river affects their livelihoods. The culture and tradition of the inhabitants have been intimately involved with the occupation inter-related with the Tista River. Interviews with the local inhabitants revealed that the 'Dotra Danga' song is a well-known folk song of the fisherman (Jele) and reflects the connections between culture, occupation, and the Tista River. Villages like Tangmari, Putimari, Darikamari, Folimari, Boalmari, Takimari, Khattimari are famous, where fishing activities merge with their culture. Thus, fishing activity has a significant role in enhancing the culture of the riparian inhabitants. The household survey to figure out how dependent people are on the Tista River for irrigation purposes indicates that, with the exception of three to four monsoon months, the majority of people (60%) use river water for irrigation for five to nine months out of the year. The Structural Equation Model (SEM) has been significantly tested based on the observed livelihood variables of the respondent riparian inhabitants. The model's CMIN/DF, NFI, RFI, IFI, TLI and CFI value shows 3.599, 0.578, 0.416, 0.785, 0.655 and 0.751, which all are maintained the good fitness of the model. Moreover, as the RMSEA value is less than 0.07, therefore it can be said that the model is fitted with the analysis. The SEM manifests a positive association between respondents' economic, social, physical, risk and environmental livelihood dimensions. Thus, it is proved that there are interdependencies among the different dimensions of livelihood of the riparian inhabitants, which are directly and indirectly connected with the Tista River. • Riverine hazards and its effects on the socio-economic life of the riparian Inhabitants The prevailing riverine hazards (viz., floods, bank erosion and river channel shifts) in the riparian villages along the Tista River pose threats to human lives, livestock, crops, and infrastructure, causing displacement, property loss, and daily life disruptions. The produced flood susceptibility map of the study area by employing the Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) demonstrated that the very high and high flood area covers 14.06% and 21.02% of the total area, respectively, which indicates that the area is at a high risk of flooding. The AUC of the flood susceptibility model is 0.79, which means the model has a good level of accuracy in distinguishing between flood-prone and non-flood-prone areas. Parallelly, bank erosion and river channel shifts are significant hazards faced by riparian inhabitants. The maximum distance of 4291.12 m right bank line shifting is observed during the time-frame 2013-2023, while the minimum distance of 170.49 m is noticed during 2003-2013. The maximum distance of 3713.25 m left bank line shifting was observed during 1993-2003, and the minimum distance of 165.16 m was noticed during the period 2003-2013. The mean distance of the right and left bank line shifting from 1993 to 2023 were computed as 1399.94 m and 1381.49 m, respectively. Therefore, the rate of migration is high on the right bank of the Tista River. Based on eight field-based observed variables, the researcher identified four major bank erosion-prone sites in the studied reaches of the Tista River. In these sites, maximum active channel shifting (1993-2023) was observed between 2500 to 4700 m. After determining the bank erosion-prone sites along the Tista River, the researcher has selected five riparian villages (Domohani, Purba Sangapara and Basusuba in Jalpaiguri District and Nijtaraf (Paschim) and Dakshin Fulkardabri Kharkharia in Koch Bihar District), which are falling under the major bank erosion-prone sites and vulnerable due to the prevailing of multi-hazards. The computed livelihood vulnerability indexed value based on Hahn et al. (2009) manifests 35 riparian villages were 'moderate vulnerable' (Indexed value 0.201 - 0.400), 14 were 'high vulnerable' (Indexed value 0.401 - 0.450), and 20 were 'very high vulnerable' (Indexed value 0.451 - 0.500). Depending on the LVI-IPCC approach, all the surveyed riparian villages belonged to the 'moderate vulnerable' class. Overall, the study area manifests 'high vulnerable' in terms of the LVI approach and 'moderate vulnerable' in terms of the LVI-IPCC approach. The socioeconomic background of the people, inadequate means of subsistence, poor health care, lack of awareness, flooding nature, and river channel migration behaviour are the primary drivers of differences in the vulnerability index. The high F statistic value and low p-value in the indexed score of LVI and flood hazards, bank erosion and river channel shifts suggest that the observed differences between groups are statistically significant. • Human interferences on the Tista River The research also evaluated the human interferences on the fluvial dynamics of the Tista River in the studied region. 35 and 24 riparian villages of Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar District, respectively, show a positive tendency in population growth rate and increasing population pressure on lands. The analysis of the land use and land cover change from 1991 to 2021 represents a 20% decline in vegetation cover. Sand bars and water bodies both experienced a decreasing trend in their percentage cover in the last 30 years. Overall LULC map classification accuracy for 1991, 2001, 2011, and 2021 is 88.24%, 86.42%, 87.50%, and 89.90%, respectively. Kappa values were successfully calculated for the corresponding years (86.18, 84.05, 85.30, and 88.13), which also signifies higher accuracy. The groundwater condition of the study area portrayed that the water level reached a maximum of 10-20 mbgl in pre-monsoonal season, and the central and some portion of the north-eastern corner of the study area face the water scarcity situation. The direct effects of human interferences depict the sedimentation rate in the studied reaches of the Tista River as about 0.014 sq. km/year. Therefore, the sedimentation rate is increased in the lower course of the Tista River due to the reduction in sediment transport capacity for the construction of the Tista Barrage Project at Gajaldoba. In terms of the recommended area for mineral concession and mineable mineral potential, Koch Bihar has a comparatively smaller area but a higher potential. On the other hand, Jalpaiguri has a larger recommended area but a slightly lower mineable mineral potential. Channel morphology of the Tista River is altered as a result of the removal of river bed sediments, such as channel widening or depth. These modifications also resulted in channel instability, increased bank erosion, and increased likelihood of flooding. Different parameters of the water quality of the survey sites have been assessed. Among the 25 parameters, fecal coliform concentrations are significantly higher than the safe limits (500 MPN/100 ml for bathing and 1000 MPN/100 ml for irrigation) set by the CPCB. During the monsoon period, the turbidity values at both sites are much higher than the permissible limit (>5 NTU as prescribed by the Bureau of Indian Standards (BIS) for drinking water), indicating that the water quality has significantly deteriorated during this period due to increased runoff from land due to heavy rainfall. At Site II, the Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) values during post monsoon seasons are higher than the ideal limit (10-30 mg/l), indicating higher levels of organic pollution. The test results for Total coliform at both Site I and Site II in all three seasons exceed the acceptable limit (5000 MPN/100ml), indicating a high level of bacterial contamination in the water. The River Habitat Survey (RHS) in six selected sections revealed that the naturalness sections (Sections A and B) have sufficient habitat quality and predominantly unmodified conditions. Among the four human intervention sections, three sections (section near Jalpaiguri Tista bridge, section near Jalpaiguri town and section near Joyee bridge) have low habitat quality and significantly modified conditions, and only one section (Gajaldoba Tista Barrage) has very low habitat quality and severely modified conditions. The human interference sections have different attribute scores compared to the naturalness sections (based on the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test), higher diversity index (based on the Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index), and significant differences in attribute abundance. Therefore, investigated sections of the Tista River based on the RHS method depict the human interference sections have changed the natural phenomena of the Tista River due to the direct effect of human interventions, while the naturalness sections remained the same, i.e., they did not affect the natural regime of the river. • Perceptions of the riparian inhabitants concerning the Tista River This study also examined the perception of the riparian inhabitants concerning the Tista River. For this purpose, the perception survey data of 8 formulated constructs has been considered to get the composite index value of respondents' awareness. The living standard of the respondents was measured based on household survey data of different livelihood dimensions. The mean difference between the CIRA and the CIRLS is 8121, with a standard deviation of 3580. This suggests that, on average, a higher level of awareness concerning the river is associated with a higher living standard for the riparian inhabitants. The 95% confidence interval of the difference is between 8482 and 7760, which means that we can be 95% confident that the true mean difference between awareness and living standard lies within this range. The t-value of 44.27 is highly significant with 380 degrees of freedom, indicating that the observed difference between awareness and living standard is likely due to chance. Therefore, a significant positive relationship exists between awareness of the riparian inhabitants and their living standards. Hence, we can conclude that awareness of the riparian inhabitants has affected the living standards of riparian inhabitants. 5. Conclusion Regarding environmental management, sustainable development, and enhancing the general welfare of the local inhabitants, it is essential to comprehend the interactions between people and rivers in the riparian communities along the Tista River. According to the study, the Tista River significantly impacts the social, economic, and cultural norms of the people who live along its banks. The horrors of the Tista River floods and the loss of life have often been evoked in society through the famous 'Bhawiaya gann' (folk song) of the riparian inhabitants. Based on the research findings, a number of policy implications and recommendations can be made to address the problems and promote sustainable development in the region. To maintain the trend of development, it is very needful to implicate the vision, objectives and proposed land use plan of the 'Gazaldoba Development Authority' (GDA). Promote riparian inhabitants to actively participate in and be involved in river management decision-making processes. This can be done by forming community-based organisations, encouraging forums for discussion, and incorporating conventional ecological knowledge into planning and policy creation. To restore and safeguard the riverine ecosystems, this may involve the implementation of erosion control techniques such as building retaining walls, using bioengineering techniques, and planting vegetation along the riverbanks, wastewater treatment systems, and reforestation initiatives. An effective flood warning system needs to be developed for the overall riparian villages in Jalpaiguri and Koch Bihar District so that everyone can take proper management to minimise their vulnerability. The study area has abundant natural resources, and it is potential for further economic development. The findings of this thesis provide valuable insights into the complexities of human-river interactions in riparian villages along the Tista River. These insights have implications for policymakers, environmental agencies, and community-based organisations as they strive to promote sustainable development and address the challenges faced by these communities.
Open Access
Causes and effects of flash flood in Alipurduar District, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Biswas, Sanjay; Mandal, D.K.
Throughout human history, hazards have been a recurring occurrence, and it is widely recognized that we cannot completely eliminate their existence. This is especially true for natural hazards, as they are beyond our control. However, while we may not be able to prevent these events from happening, we can take measures to mitigate their impact and prevent them from escalating into catastrophic disasters through efficient planning and preparedness. Among the multitude of disasters, flash floods stand out as particularly devastating on a global scale. These events have the potential to escalate rapidly and inflict widespread damage in a very short span of time. Flash floods have posed a significant threat to Alipurduar District, earning it the reputation of being a flash flood-prone area. This study provides an overview of the factors contributing to flash floods in the District, their impact on the local ecosystem and socio-economy, and potential measures to mitigate the damage caused by these natural disasters. The region's diverse topography directly influences the severity of flash floods, with the hilly areas and foothills in the north of Alipurduar District being particularly susceptible. The rivers originating from the Bhutan Himalayas play a crucial role in triggering sudden slope changes and heavy rainfall, carrying substantial amounts of water, sand, and stones through the District. When these rivers reach the foothill areas, they deposit excess materials, elevating the riverbeds and causing sporadic flash floods during the monsoon season. Human activities such as mining, quarrying, and deforestation further exacerbate the impact of flash floods, disrupting the natural balance and increasing the District's vulnerability. Over the past few decades, numerous flash flood incidents have occurred, predominantly affecting the foothill areas in the north of the District. This research aims to shed light on the causes of flash floods in Alipurduar District and explore potential mitigation methods. The study delves into the relationship between flash floods and heavy rainfall, drainage systems, topography, human influence, and the elevation of riverbeds. Additionally, the research highlights the extensive impact of flash floods on human and livestock casualties, river course alterations, water quality, ecosystems, cultivation, forests, tea gardens, and the socio-economic condition of the District. The thesis is divided into eight chapters. The introductory chapter (Chapter I) provides an overview of flash floods, the study area, research objectives, the database and methodology employed, statement of the problem, and the significance of the study. Chapter II offers a brief description of the physical and cultural characteristics of Alipurduar District, covering topography, geology, climate, natural vegetation, drainage systems, population resources, and tea gardens. Chapter III discusses the drainage system of Alipurduar District in detail. This chapter provides detailed information about several small rivers in the study area. Source, course details, total catchment area and total length of each river are determined. Basically, the detailed information about the rivers has been presented with the help of long term field observation experience and Google earth. In this chapter river bank erosion sites are identified through field observation and discussed through photographs. The morphological characteristics of the rivers in the study area are discussed in details. Morphological features like alluvial fan, braided channel, meander, ox-bow-lake, point bar, sand bar, river island etc. are identified and discussed. Finally, in this chapter, the channel transformation of various rivers is discussed in details. Chapter IV extensively explores the causes of flash floods in Alipurduar District, with a particular emphasis on rainfall data. Rainfall data for the last 30-35 years has been reviewed in detail by collecting data from CWC, Irrigation and Waterways Department, Tea Gardens and Govt. agricultural farms. Each flash flood that has occurred in the study area, is discussed with evidence by collecting newspaper cuttings. The causes and damages of flash floods of 1993, 1998, 2000, 2004, 2007, 2010, 2014 and 2017 are highlighted. A separate household survey was conducted to discuss the causes of the 1993 flash flood. Data regarding the date and years of flash flood was collected from the clock offices and the cause of flash flood was discussed. The relationship of rivers with slope is discussed to determine the extent to which topography is responsible for flash floods in Alipurduar District. Field observations and photographs were collected as evidence to determine the extent to which river projects and construction barriers were responsible for flash floods. The details of the quarrying of various rivers in the study area have been discussed. The impact of upper catchment area dolomite mining on flash floods is discussed. During the field observations various photographs were collected to know the impact of mining and quarrying activities on flash floods. Chapter V examines the nature of flash floods in Alipurduar District, including flash flood frequency, flash flood magnitude index, duration of flash floods, and a historical overview of flash flood events. The discussion of this chapter is mainly based on CWC’s discharge data, water level data and rainfall data. Recurrence Intervals of three major rivers (Torsa, Raidak-I, Raidak- II) of Alipurduar District are discussed to obtain information about the frequency of flash floods. Generally, the effect of flash flood is seen in the whole District mainly after 2-3 years. However, flash flood occurs every year in Ballalguri, Totopara, Jamtala, Bandapani, Jayanti, Mechpara, Radhrani, Chuapara, Hatipota etc. In the northern foothill areas of Alipurduar District, flash flood water mainly stays for 2-3 hours, but in the southern plains it stays for 12-36 hours. On the basis of flash flood susceptibility, Alipurduar District has been divided into four parts and discussed about them in details. Flash Flood Magnitude Index (FFMI) of Torsa, Raidak-I and Raidak-II Rivers have been determined through discharge data. From the information of the District Disaster Management Plan, it has been seen that in this District, Madarihat-Birpara, Kalchini and Kumargram block are the most flash flood prone. Data of Qmax and water level of 1993, 1998, 2000, 2007, 2010 and 2017 were reviewed to know the nature of flash flood in details. Chapter VI, considered the core of the research, focuses on the effects of flash floods in the District. In this chapter, a household survey was conducted on 860 households to know the various effects of flash flood in Alipurduar District. Based on that, it has been possible to bring out various information. Data on human life lost in 1993 was collected through CWC integrated data book, newspaper cuttings as well as household survey. The mainstay of Alipurduar District’s economy is the tea industry. Naturally, the effect of flash flood is more on the tea gardens. The effect of flash flood of last 30-35 years on tea plantations has been discussed through the data obtained from Dooars Branch Indian Tea Association (DBITA). Tea gardens affected by flash flood have been identified through field observations and maps have been made with the help of Google earth and ArcGIS software. Information about the effect of flash flood on forest has been collected and discussed through field survey. Photographs of tea gardens and forests affected by flash flood in different years were collected during direct field observation. Some secondary data regarding flash flood affected forests were collected from different secondary sources. The impact of flash floods on crop pattern change in the northern part of the study area is discussed in detail. Information on flash flood affected construction and property loss across the District has been presented. Photographs of flash flood affected constructions and properties have been collected through field observations. This chapter discussed the effect of flash floods on soil properties. The water of various rivers of Alipurduar District is being affected for dolomite mining and in-stream quarrying. Water samples have been collected and tested from different rivers to provide detailed information on this matter. The Water Quality Index (WQI) table is created based on the weighted Arithmetic Water Quality Index (WAWQI) method. To collect data on river bed rising in the study area, river bed elevation has been measured regularly in different rivers during Pre-monsoon and Post-Monsoon periods for the last 6-7 years. Data and photographs of river bank failure in different parts of the District due to the effect of flash flood have been collected and discussed. Field observation was done and photographs were collected to know about the river valley enlargement. River channel transformation due to flash floods is also discussed. Finally, this chapter briefly discusses the positive effects of flash floods. Chapter VII outlines proposed remedial measures for flash floods in the study area, identifying vulnerable zones and rivers, and suggesting strategies and measures to mitigate the effects of flash floods. In this chapter, the guidelines given by WHO regarding flash floods have been discussed in detail. During the field observation, it was observed that the presence of forest in the foothill regions of the northern part of Alipurduar District has been able to resist the intensity of flash floods to a great extent. Hence the importance of forest in flash flood prevention is discussed in detail with photographs. Uses of local available materials (Sand, boulder, bamboo, bad materials, etc.) also discussed with photographic evidences. Finally, Chapter VIII presents the major findings of the research and offers a comprehensive conclusion. Finally, this research contributes to understanding the causes and impacts of flash floods in Alipurduar District. It provides insights into the vulnerabilities of the region and proposes potential solutions to minimize the devastating effects of flash floods. By addressing the various aspects discussed in this study, stakeholders can work towards building a more resilient Alipurduar District in the face of flash flood events.
Open Access
Problems and prospect of Balurghat municipal area in Dakshin Dinajpur district, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2012) Kundu, Prabir Kumar; Mandal, D. K.
Title: PROBLEMS AND PROSPECTS OF BALURGHAT MUNICIPAL AREA IN DAKSHIN DINAJPUR DISTRICT, WEST BENGAL The present study on Balurghat Municipal area is embodied with the urban problems and their effects on the people. There are some motivating factors which attract the researcher to study a particular town like Balurghat viz. - partition of Bengal as a causative factor behind the origin of Balurghat town, rapid increase in population due to heavy influx of immigrants from erstwhile East Pakistan, rural depopulation in the surroundings of the town, changes in the trend of population growth as well as land use pattern and related problems. The town Balurghat experienced several unplanned phases of urban expansion over the decades~ As a result, flood vis-a-vis water-logging becomes one of the chronic problems for the town which ultimately resists the acceleration of socio-economic and cultural prosperity of Balurghat. Hence, it is clear that as the population increases, the problem of water-logging also increases simultaneously. Since 1990, the situation became the worst because of natural factor coupled with the human factor have aggravated the menace of inundation and waterlogging in the town. It is true that river Atreyee has undergone several shifting of her courses upon this aggradational plain over the last 200 years. But the decay of the drainage conditions of both the channels of Danga Khari and river Atreyee is not too much natural as it is much more by the unprecedented human interferences into the fluvial system. Ongoing construction of the new urban sewer and storm-water disposal system according to the Master Plan is on the final stage. It is expected that the age-old problem of water-logging in Balurghat town may be mitigated comprehensively through this plan only with few exceptions in a year when there will be unprecedented high flood level in river Atreyee. Citizens as well as the municipal administration are very hopefully looking forward to overcome this menace in the near future. There is no denying that the overall transport system of Balurghat town is now quite better what it was ten years ago. The days of painful journey of the citizen are now almost become to an end_ by the introduction of railway track while the availability of super quality express road (SH-10) makes it more convenient. However, such situation will definitely attract the government as well as the capitalists to establish several kinds of agro-based and small scale industries in and around Balurghat town. A survey has been made for the Balurghat-Hili railway track and the work is on progress. So it can be expected that in the near future Balurghat must join with Bangladesh through railway network. If it is possible a new horizon will open in the trade and commerce sector of Dakshin Dinajpur District which will ultimately strengthens the socio-economic structure of the District as well as of the Balurghat town. Once the partition made the town Balurghat almost infirm and may be the railway connection with Bangladesh in near future will unveil a new chapter in the socio~ economic, cultural and political aspects of Balurghat. Citizens are counting days in the state ofthat dream. Generation of solid waste continues to increase in urban India with rapid urbanization, rising incomes, changing consumption patterns and a shift from recycling to a throw-away society. In any urban areas, the problem of solid waste management is very acute due to the dense development and congestion. SWM is an obligatory function of ULBs in India. Most of the ULBs are unable to cope with the challenging task of collection, transportation and disposal of solid wastes not only due to rapid urbanization but also due to the unavailability of required open spaces near the urban centres for land filling. Therefore, wastes often accumulates in open spaces, fallow lands, streets, stagnant water bodies and even in the rivers causing serious health and environmental problems for the urban dwellers and also for the rurban people living nearer to the town or city. Not only that the accumulation of uncollected waste pollutes ground water as well as surface water through leaching and runoff respectively. However, in case of Balurghat town, SWM consumes a significant proportion of municipal budget but revenues from the service are nil. The Municipality is also often under-staffed and lack of adequate number of vehicles to transport wastes. Disposal of waste is becoming an even more serious problem as the existent dumping yard is going to be unable to take more waste in the future while the availability of land within the accessible distance becoming scarce. Management of municipal waste is a service which needs efficiency and also substantial financial support in order to bring about improvement in the service. But the present situation in respect to SWM in Balurghat town is far below the wanted level. The huge amount of waste generated every day makes a severe threat to the urban environment of Balurghat and this is a burning problem like all other towns of West Bengal. Three essential components are required in this ground on regular basisCollection, Transportation and Disposal of such wastes with keen attention and probable innovation wherever necessary. The deficiency in the water supply system may be solved through the implementation of the ongoing 'Water Supply Scheme' under JNNURM. In respect to the upliftment of healthcare system, keen attention should be given particularly on the District Hospital as it is the only hope for the common people. It is very hopeful event that few schemes are already approved from the government side and few are waiting for approval to open some new wards in District Hospital like Neo-natal ward, Nutritional rehabilitation centre, Thalasemia day-care centre, Genetic ward, 4 bedded ICCU, Special clinic for diabetes, stroke, cardiovascular disease and cancer. Rupees 10 crores has announced for each to construct another 200 extended beds and for promoting the District Hospital to Super Specialty Status.· Citizens are eagerly waiting for those fine days. It is a challenge for India's urban planning to accommodate an additional 10 million urban dwellers per year, provide them with adequate public services and infrastructure, create opportunities for economic development, and to ensure that urbanization is environmentally sustainable. It will be a democratic and participatory planning process so as to incorporate the needs of the people, particularly poor and socially as well as economically disadvantaged groups. In order to make the urban planning and development process sustainable, it would be appropriate to interlink between the planning framework comprising national level strategies, regional level strategies, metropolitan level strategies and city/ town level as well as ward levelland use and development plans and strategies. State Government needs to take concrete steps to constitute the legal and institutional framework that should provide the ULBs with adequate infrastructure and manpower to undertake the preparation of such plans. It should be accelerated further by developing urban and regional information system and providing access to remotely sensed data, aerial photographs, and GIS techniques to build a complete database for the Balurghat Municipal area. With such strong database the Balurghat Municipal area will be capable for coverage of urban population with basic urban services. Prabir Kumar Kundu (Researcher)
Open Access
Livelihood conditions of census town dwellers of Jalpaiguri District, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Ali, Ershad; Sarkar, Bipul Chandra
Urbanization is the process by which cities grow and population is concentrated in urban areas. The growth of census towns makes a notable contribution to the process of socio-economic and socio-cultural transition of dwellers. The separate recognition of census towns and statutory towns contributed to a better understanding of the urbanization pattern. In the new era of urban development, increasing urbanization has a direct impact on the demographic and socio-economic situation of statutory and census cities. Census Towns are the towns which are not legally registered areas and administer the area like a city, they are in rural revenue village, i.e., they are administratively in the rural area but their population has attained urban characteristics. The role of Census Towns (CTs) in the urbanization process in sub-Himalaya West Bengal as well as in the Dooars region is very crucial. It influences not only the rate of urbanization in this region, but also changes in land use and land cover as well as the sociocultural conditions of the study area. The CTs are helping to change the land use pattern of the sub-Himalayan regions of West Bengal. The extent and pace of urbanization have had a profound impact on the livelihoods and demographics of cities and CTs. The growth and expansion of CTs are directly influenced by the rate of urbanization and indirectly by the sociocultural changes in the study area. The present study is an attempt to assess the trend and growth of CTs more accurately and scientifically, the livelihoods and infrastructural development of the Census Towns accordingly, to identify the key issues disrupting the growth of CTs and the allocation of facilities and services to ensure a better socio-economic life of residents of census cities in the study area. In addition, it aims to examine various urban problems and provide some remedies. Jalpaiguri district is in the northeast of West Bengal. Geographically, the district is bordered by Alipurduar district to the east, Cooch Behar district to the southeast, Kalimpong district to the north, Darjeeling district to the north, and the Bangladesh International Border to the south and southwest. Geographically, Jalpaiguri district is located at 26⁰ 16′ to 27⁰ North latitude and 88⁰ 23′ to 89⁰ 8′ East longitude. The study is based on five main objectives: i) To find out the pattern and growth of CTs of the Jalpaiguri district, ii) To find the livelihood conditions of Census Town dwellers, iii) To scrutinize the levels of infrastructural development of the CTs of the study area, iv) To analyze the problems associated with the urban development of the CTs of the study area, v) To recommend the developmental strategy of the Census Town dwellers. Based on the selected objectives, there are four main hypotheses, namely i) The levels of urbanisation of the CTs are increasing over periods, ii) The socio-economic and socio-cultural status of the CTs are facing several challenges, iii) The infrastructural development of the CTs is inadequate, and iv) The problems associated with the urban development of the CTs are more in the case of large CTs and low in the case of small CTs. The first objective and hypothesis has been proved by the fact that the census towns share a significant percentage (almost half of the total urbanization) of the urbanization rate in Jalpaiguri district. While the concept of Census Towns (CTs) was introduced by the 1961 Census of India, the trend and growth of CTs varies from time to time. In 1961 the number of CTs in Jalpaiguri district was only 3, 3 in 1971, 4 in 1981, 6 in 1991, 4 in 2001 and 15 in 2011. The district's first Census Towns (CTs) were Maynaguri, Dhupguri, and Mal. The growth history of the Census Towns (CTs) of Jalpaiguri district shows the fact that there are no constant growth characteristics from the first decade of the CTs to the last few decades. Very slow, negative, and high growth rate of some CTs proves poor growth rate of district urbanization. But the past two decades, the growth rate is increasing due to the increase in the number of CTs of such a district. The 1961-1971 and 1971-1981 period was identified as a very slow growth period. The period from 1991 to 2001 has been identified as a negative growth period due to the declining of few census towns (CTs). The number of CTs was decreased from 6 in 1981 to 4 in 1991. The period from 2001 to 2011 has been considered a high growth period due to the emergence of several new Census Towns (CTs) over the past decade. The number of CTs was increased from 4 in 2001 to 15 in 2011. There are some important statistical tools such as growth indices, census town population balance sheets, annual exponential growth rate, etc. to measure the trend and growth of census towns. Urban geographers use these tools to measure urban growth. The same tools were also used in this study. Using the different measurement tools, it was found that the Census Towns (CTs) experienced low growth and experienced significant to high growth percentage over time from inception to the last census. The population balance for the census towns in the study area is calculated. The calculation shows that the growth rate and size classes of the CTs increase over time. The correlation coefficient was calculated and graphed to show the relationship between the total population size of CTs and the annual exponential growth, and it was shown that there is a very strong relationship between these two variables. The second objective and hypothesis has been proved by the fact that the social elements such as caste composition, sex ratio, marital status, age-gender structure, literacy status, health information, language, religion, etc. and economic elements such as economic activities, workforce composition, monthly family income, house type, housing conditions, basic housing amenities, household wealth, etc. were discussed in order to get an idea of the socioeconomic conditions of CT residents. The analysis revealed that the socio-economic characteristics of CT differ from town to town. The analysis has shown that the CTs in the tea and forest region have a higher concentration of the ST population in the northern part of the district than in the southern part. In terms of the sex ratio of Jalpaiguri district CT residents, Jalpaiguri district has an urban sex ratio of 943, slightly lower than the state average of 944 but higher than the national average of 926. The study shows that all CTs homogeneity and marriage similarities in the under 20s and over 30s age group, and the number of married women in the first age group at marriage is higher than that of men. On the other hand, the participation of men and women in marriage in the middle age group varies between CTs in the district. Looking at the total population as well as the population in different age groups in the CTs, the proportion of men in the entire district is comparatively higher than the proportion of women. The study also shows that residents use several common languages (Bengali, Hindi and Tribal) and a significant number of residents use other languages for their daily communication in the district's census towns. Several religious people also live in the CTs, even without any creed. Analysis was also conducted for common diseases of residents of the CTs across the district, and it was found that most of the residents face common diseases such as diarrhoea, fever, cough, hyperacidity, Covid-19, and some other diseases. There are also regional imbalances in the economic profile of census town residents. The census towns concentrated in the tea and forest region were found to have relatively lower economic status. Much of their workforce worked on tea plantations, resulting in a lower per capita income. The economically dependent population is also higher in these census towns, since the possibility of finding a job or other employment is comparatively low. Aside from these census towns, others have other difficult economic conditions. However, as the study shows, the overall economic profile of residents of census town is significantly low. Overall economic development is essential for a better economic livelihood. Residents had lower livelihoods throughout the study period. The differences between the Jalpaiguri district CTs were calculated to show the relationship between the various indicators of the CTs and their developmental scores, and it was shown that the maximal CTs range from the least developed to the moderately developed CTs. The third goal and hypothesis were supported by the fact that the spatial and temporal growth of CT and the improvement of urban infrastructure over time. The analysis revealed that the infrastructural characteristics of CT differ from town to town. The composite index was calculated to measure the infrastructural development of CTs. The spatial distribution of the CTs based on their infrastructural characteristics also showed some essential characteristics. The majority of the CTs had low to very low levels of infrastructure development in 1991 and 2001. The scenario of the CTs was upgraded in 2011, with the level being reduced from low to very low level of infrastructure development and upgraded to the level of high to medium level of infrastructure development. However, almost 50% of CTs belong to high-medium level and a little more than 50% of CTs belong to low to very low-level level infrastructure development. The fourth goal and hypothesis were supported by the fact the census towns and their dwellers suffer from many problems related to their daily livelihood. There is a lack of some basic facilities within the CTs such as access to clean drinking water, latrine and bathrooms, drainage, and separate kitchens, etc. All issues were discussed separately in every CT to understand the problem scenario. One of the main problems faced by CT dwellers is the lack of drinking water supply in the CTs. Due to the lack of proper water treatment facilities, a large percentage of households do not have access to clean water. Another problem is that to date, a large percentage of the homes of many CTs in the study area do not have latrines on their premises. This is because some of the CTs are in rural areas and a significant number of residents are uneducated. As for the proportion of households without separate kitchen facilities, in some CTs there are many households that do not have separate kitchens, particularly those whose occupants are economically vulnerable and dependent workers in the tea garden. In terms of the percentage of households without a drainage system, many households, almost all CTs, do not have a proper drainage facility in their home. Regarding the pH of the drinking water and the TDS of the water in the CTs, some of the CTs have a pH below 6.5, indicating the presence of acidic elements in the water, which non-potable according to the Bureau of Indian Standard. There is a CT where the TDS level in the water is below 50ppm, indicating it is not suitable for drinking. Regarding the noise level in the CTs, 73% of the CTs in the study area found an above-average noise level. There is a lot of noise pollution in the Jalpaiguri district CTs. Regarding the air quality (PM2.5 and PM10) in the CTs, the survey result shows that some of the CTs have a PM2.5 concentration higher than the safe limit, and regarding PM10, there are no CTs of the study area with more than 100g/m3. This means that the concentration of PM10 in the CTs is safe compared to PM2.5 in the atmosphere of the CTs across the district. There is a strong positive correlation between the total population and the concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 of the CTs. Regarding the air quality (TVOC and HCHO) in the CTs, the survey result shows that there is one CT that has TVOC above 0.2 mg/m3. The survey also shows that there are 3 CTs that have HCHO above 0.0123 mg/m3. Regarding the traffic volume in the CTs, the traffic load at the junction of all the CTs is heavy, and the CTs that are close to the highways have heavier traffic. On the other hand, the CT away from the highways have a low traffic load. Based on the average waiting time in minutes at the junction of all CTs, it shows that 33% of CTs have no waiting time for traffic at the junction. It is important to mention that the CTs located along the highways must wait a long time for traffic. Regarding the health infrastructure in the CTs, on average, most CTs have a lack of adequate health facilities in their CT area. As such, residents of CTs face several health challenges, particularly among the larger CT dwellers. Regarding the modern employment opportunities within the CT, the primary survey shows that almost all CT residents of any individual CT are dissatisfied with the availability of modern employment opportunities within the CT. They claim that the CTs lack modern facilities. Regarding solid waste, there is no system for collecting waste from residents. The dwellers of the CTs throw their daily rubbish everywhere. Therefore, the situation was getting worse day by day and it was observed that most respondents were dissatisfied with the solid waste in their CTs. The fifth goal has been proved by the various recommendations along with their problems within the CTs. Suggestions are made from the viewer’s own perspective. Since these are the Census Towns (CTs), the Gram Panchayats cannot provide adequate urban amenities for CT residents. The CTs should be declared as a Notified Area or Municipality. When the CTs become a municipal body, almost all the problems of the CTs will automatically disappear. As the municipality or notified area has its own laws and functions. Aside from that, the continued growth of CTs also creates some demographic issues. Therefore, the competent authority should take some necessary measures to minimize this problem. Education is another background that causes some breaks in the development of CTs. However, the literacy rate and level of literacy among CTs show spatial variation in the district. Some of the CTs have a standard literacy rate with a standard literacy level, but some of the CTs have a low literacy rate compared to the Indian urban literacy rate. Therefore, the government should need to set up more educational institutions within the CTs. Also, the existing health facilities in the CTs are not sufficient to cope with the health problems of the CT residents. So, to minimize these problems, the government should have to set up a health facility. Also, most of the CTs in the
Open Access
Socio-economic study on arsenicosis affected inhabitants in Maldah District, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Poddar, Debapriya; Mukhopadhyay, Sarbari
Arsenic (As) concentration in groundwater is a significant environmental issue for the different parts of the Ganga basin. In 1984, groundwater arsenic contamination was detected in lower Ganga Plain of West Bengal (Garai et al., 1984). Maldah district is one of the worst Arsenic affected district of West Bengal and severe contaminated blocks of Maldah district are Kaliachak-I, Kaliachak-II, Kaliachak-III, Manickchak, English bazar Ratua-I, and Ratua-II, which have contained beyond the permissible limit of arsenic in groundwater (0.05 mg/ l, Indian standard). In these contaminated blocks, the maximum concentration level of Arsenic in a shallow tube well varies between 0.072 mg/l to 0.929 mg/l (Source: PHE, Maldah). The rest of the blocks contain an insignificant amount, i.e., the permissible limit of Arsenic in groundwater. Moreover, a considerable number of tube wells were contaminated with Arsenic. So, the Department of Public Health Engineering and the Government of West Bengal has arranged to supply Arsenic-free safe water to the Arsenic affected people. However, there are still many pockets in this district where no Arsenic-free safe water supply is available. Hence, extensive groundwater arsenic contamination has become a major issue of concern, where the water supply is profoundly reliant on groundwater (Madhuvan and Subramanian, 2006) extracted from the shallow aquifers. Common trace of Arsenic in drinking water causes significant health risk, and public health is severely endangered for its high toxicity and its ability to induce skin cancer after a long-term ingestion (Panigrahi, 2016), responsible for the socio-economic demolition. Arsenic pollution has been thought to be a menace for the population of Maldah district (Panigrahi, 2016) which is really of significant concern. Therefore, it is necessary to determine the causes and consequences of arsenicosis in Maldah district and to study the socio-economic conditions of the people suffering from arsenicosis. Present researcher has also tried to find out the suitable alternatives to overcome the problems of arsenicosis by estimating the public WTP (willingness to pay) for access arsenic-free safe water by installing the different arsenic free water supply sources across the different Arsenic risk zones of the study area. Hence, the following objectives are sets for this purpose 1. To study the spatial distribution and causes of arsenic concentration in groundwater in Maldah district 2. To study the socio-economic status of the arsenicosis inhabitants in the study area 3. To study the socio-economic determinants of arsenicosis in the study area 4. To assess the impact of arsenicosis on the health and socio-economic condition of the inhabitants in the study area 5. To find out the present status of demand and supply of arsenic-free safe water in Maldah district 6. To suggest some remedial measures to overcome the problems of arsenicosis The present studies try to prove the following research hypothesis, either true or false: 1. The prevalence of arsenicosis varies with some socio-economic determinants. 2. The impact of arsenicosis is related to some socio-economic variables. 3. Willingness to agree with mitigation strategies depends on the socio-economic condition of the respondents. In order to full fill the mentioned objectives several methodologies have been used A. The present study utilized both primary and secondary data sources. Primary data was collected from arsenic-affected areas within the study region, using a survey employing both schedule and questionnaire methods. The multi-stage random stratified sampling design was adopted to select a sample of households, with a sample size of 300 determined by using Cochran's method (Cochran, 1963). B. The level of prevalence of arsenicosis patients was assessed using the Technique for order of preference by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS) (Hwang and Yoon, 1981). To examine the prevalence of respondents' knowledge (10), attitude (4), and practices (5) regarding arsenicosis, (19) criteria were considered. Then these criteria are categorized into two groups, beneficial and non-beneficial, and an equal weight (0.042) has been assigned to each criterion to rank the different dimensions. The Euclidean distance from ideal best (S+) and ideal worst (S-) has been calculated for each criterion. Finally, the performance score (Pi) of the level of their prevalence about arsenicosis was calculated, where a lower value indicates poor condition and a higher value indicates the good prevalence of arsenicosis. C. The socio-economic and health impacts of arsenicosis are assessed using a scaling technique. Specifically, a five-point Likert scale is employed to collect data on individuals' perception levels of the impacts related to both arsenicosis illness and arsenic contamination. The Likert scale is also used to measure the social, economic, and health-related impacts, with scores assigned to each statement. D. A self-created S.E.H.V.I (Socio-Economic Health Vulnerability Index) has prepared in chapter five (5) to measure the perception level of the respondents regarding the overall (social, economic, health) impact of arsenicosis. The respondents’ perception level about the vulnerability in different domain (social, economic, health) can be assessed through Socio Economic Health Vulnerability Index (SEHVI). Analysis of these different vulnerability (social, economic, health) among arsenicosis patients in Maldah district highlights the socio-economic impact of arsenicosis. For this purpose, individual S.V.I (Social Vulnerability Index), E.V.I (Economic Vulnerability Index), and H.V.I (Health Vulnerability Index) have been prepared. Then social, economic, and health vulnerability scores have also been calculated through the scaling technique and consolidated efficiently through a Socio-Economic Health Vulnerability Index. Each vulnerability (social, economic, and health) is assessed at five stages. They are 1. Strongly disagree 2. Disagree 3. Neutral 4. Agree and 5. Strongly agree. E. One-way ANCOVA is used to explore the relationship between each of the social, economic, health impact and a variable by measuring the effect of the socio-economic status of the arsenicosis inhabitants. Several independent socio-economic variables are selected for this analysis, including family size, age, household monthly income, and marital status. Social, economic, and health impacts are considered as the dependent variables. F. Karl Pearson's product-moment coefficient of correlation was employed to assess the relationship between the indices of different hazard indexes, including the Social Hazard Index and Economic Hazard Index, Social Hazard Index and Health Hazard Index, and Economic Hazard Index and Health Hazard Index. The 't-test' technique was then used to determine the level of significance of the observed correlations. G. A binary probit model was used to investigate the factors that may have influenced the respondents' willingness to pay for installing the community Arsenic-free water supply sources. Respondents' Willingness to Pay (WTP) was defined as a binary variable with two categories: zero and one. A response of 'zero' indicated that the respondent was unwilling to pay, while a response of 'one' indicated that the respondent was willing to pay. The dependent variable was the respondents' WTP, while the independent variables were the socio-economic factors that may influence people's WTP, including age, sex, marital status, number of years spent in formal education by the respondent, households’ average monthly income, marital status, presence of PHED pipeline, identification of the danger level of ‘As’ in individuals’ tube well, and inadequate stand posts. For testing the hypothesis, three tests, likelihood ratio test (-2 Log (Like.)), the Score test and the Wald test were performed. The study has been arranged in to seven chapters. Major findings of the present research work are as follows The study is organized into seven chapters, with the first chapter covering objectives, hypotheses, literature review, and methodologies. The second chapter focuses on the spatial distribution and causes of groundwater arsenic concentration in Maldah district. The study found that the regional and spatial distribution of arsenic concentration is not uniform, with the Diara and southwestern parts of the Tal region being more vulnerable. This heterogeneity is attributed to various geogenic factors, including geology, geomorphology, elevation, slope, characteristics of the river, and soil texture. In the third chapter, the socio-economic status of the arsenicosis inhabitants in Maldah district is discussed. The findings suggest that the socio-economic status of these inhabitants is generally poor, with the illiterate, male, and aged (>40) respondents being more vulnerable to arsenic pollution than the female, young, and less educated inhabitants. The lack of an arsenic clinic in their village has also contributed to their suffering, with financial constraints, unawareness, and dissatisfaction with the treatment hindering their ability to seek proper care. In the fourth chapter, the socio-economic determinants of arsenicosis were analyzed using TOPSIS method. The study found that demographic, social, and economic factors significantly influence arsenic toxicity. The key social and economic determinants of arsenicosis were identified as age, sex, education status, household income, poverty level, and health infrastructure. The prevalence level among the respondents was categorized into five classes based on the TOPSIS results, namely Very low (value <0.2), Low (value 0.2 - 0.3), Medium (value 0.3 - 0.4), High (value 0.4 -0.5), and Very High (value >0.5). To test the hypothesis that "the prevalence of arsenicosis varies with some socio-economic determinants," education status and household income were selected as the main social and economic determinants. A paired t-test was performed between the prevalence score and education status, and between the prevalence score and household income. The results showed that the prevalence of arsenicosis varies with the educational status and monthly household income of the respondents, with the corresponding two-tailed p-value being less than 0.05. Therefore, the research hypothesis is accepted, and it is concluded that the prevalence of arsenicosis varies with the educational status and monthly household income of respondents. This finding is significant as household income and literacy rates vary considerably across the study area. In the fifth chapter, the impact of arsenicosis on the health and socio-economic condition of the inhabitants of Maldah district was evaluated. The Social Vulnerability Index (SVI), Economic Vulnerability Index (EVI), and Health Vulnerability Index (HVI) were calculated using a composite standard score. The highest mean vulnerability score of the high level of social vulnerability (0.65), high level of economic vulnerability (0.97), and high level of health vulnerability (0.78) suggested that respondents had experienced a high level of vulnerability in social, economic and health perspective. Arsenicosis had a significant impact on social, economic, and health condition, with only one or two indicators showing no significant influence from certain socio-economic variables. The respective 'F' statistics of these impacts were significant at a 95% significance level. Thus, the research hypothesis, "The impact of arsenicosis is related to some socio-economic variables," is accepted. The sixth chapter delves into the current demand and supply status of arsenic-free water in the Maldah district. The existing arsenic-free water supply system in the study area is inadequate, and therefore, this chapter proposes remedial measures to overcome the problems of arsenicosis by estimating the public WTP for installing arsenic-free water supply technologies to acquire safe drinking water across different arsenic risk zones in the study area. The respondents' WTP was found to be heterogeneous and varied with their socio-economic characteristics. A significant relationship was observed between independent variables such as poverty level, family size, education status, etc., and WTP. The model was found to be statistically significant with a likelihood ratio chisquare of 286.288 and a p-value of 0.0001. The score test and Wald tests were also significant at a 95% confidence interval. Thus, the research hypothesis, "Willingness to agree with mitigation strategies depends on the socio-economic condition of the respondents," is accepted. In the final chapter, a summary and policy implications are presented. The study highlights several major problems related to arsenic contamination and arsenicosis in Maldah district, including: 1. Despite the detection of high levels of arsenic in tube well water (above the permissible limit of 0.05 mg/L), many inhabitants continue to use contaminated water, leading to poisoning. 2. Lack of awareness about arsenic pollution has contributed to the increasing incidence of arsenicosis. 3. Poor health infrastructure, including the absence of arsenic clinics and irregular follow-up systems, has exacerbated the problem. 4. Arsenicosis sufferers have experienced numerous social and economic difficulties. 5. Victims of arsenicosis also suffer from various symptoms and severe health conditions. 6. Irregular supply of arsenic-free water through the Public Health Engineering Department (PHED) pipeline has impacted the inhabitants. Some individuals do not have access to any arsenic-free water sources. 7. The economic poverty of the inhabitants of arsenic-prone regions makes it challenging for them to purchase arsenic-free water regularly. 8. The long distance to arsenic-free water supply sources is another significant problem. It is time-consuming for the inhabitants to travel long distances to collect arsenic-free water. These issues must be addressed through a combination of policy initiatives and public awareness campaigns to mitigate the adverse effects of arsenicosis and ensure safe drinking water for all. The following recommendations are proposed to address the socio-economic and health impacts of arsenicosis in Maldah district:  Short-term solutions, such as providing safe arsenic-free drinking water and implementing low-cost arsenic removal technologies, can offer immediate relief to affected individuals. Regular testing of tube well water can also prevent longterm exposure to arsenic.  Long-term approaches, including rainwater harvesting and surface water supply from rivers, ponds, and tanks, can help tackle the issue of arsenic contamination at the community level.  Ensuring the effectiveness of arsenic removal plants and promoting collaboration between stakeholders can further enhance the success of these initiatives.  Raising public awareness about the health risks of arsenic exposure and providing access to diagnosis, treatment, and counseling services can help improve the well-being of affected individuals and their families.  Implementing health policies and education programs can foster positive behavior change and empower communities to address social discrimination and stigma associated with arsenicosis.  Providing financial support, employment opportunities, and relief measures to affected families can help alleviate the economic burden of arsenicosis. By implementing these measures, we can mitigate the negative impacts of arsenicosis and improve the overall health and well-being of the people of Maldah district
Open Access
Geographical analysis of urban growth in Siliguri planning area, West Bengal
(University of North Bengal, 2023) Saha, Arjun; Roy, Ranjan
Title: A Geospatial Analysis of Urban Growth in Siliguri Planning Area, West Bengal Introduction: Urban growth is a universal phenomenon. It takes place in almost all the cities in the world. In developed countries, this growth had taken place much before than the developing and underdeveloped countries respectively. In developed countries, this has been taken place in a planned and efficient way, whereas in the developing and underdeveloped countries, it does not follow any rules and regulations, though in maximum cities of developing world there has some certain rules. Due to this unplanned nature of growth of urban built-up features, several productive lands that surround the city are going to extinct which creates an adverse effect on that city. India is a country which falls still in the developing world is facing this same situation in many cities. Some megacities which lie at the top of the table are comparatively follow better regulations and extending themselves in a sustainable way, but maximum cities which have an great economic importance in the country does not follow those rules. Growths in these cities are taking place due to the excessive increase of population mainly for the migration from rural areas primarily for better economic opportunities. Siliguri is a city that lies in the northern part of West Bengal is facing this same problem after its formation. From the beginning this area had been exploited for different purposes and besides this, as this urban centre playing a role of primate city for the entire North Bengal after independence, maximum people had shifted to this place for better livelihood, which makes the growth in a faster rate comparing to other. This faster growth of population and simultaneously urban built-up often captures the productive lands, like forests and agricultural land that surround this city in all sides. So, for this reason, this city with its surrounding area, known as Siliguri Planning Area (SPA) that demarcated by Siliguri Jalpaiguri Development Authority (SJDA) has been taken to find out the land use and land cover changes from 1992 to 2021, to identify the growth of urban built-up in this region, to identify the sustainably suitable places for new development, to analyze the relation between infrastructural development and urban growth and lastly to identify and analyze the possible problems that are occurring in this area due to unplanned and limitless urban growth. Database and Methodology: For this entire work, researcher has used different secondary data that are openly available in different repositories. For the analysis of land use and land cover and to analyze the urban built-up growth from 1992 to 2021, land surface temperature, vegetation index, Landsat satellite images for the year 1992, 2001, 2011 and 2021 have been used in this work. Beside this, for the identification of suitable places for new built-up development and for the analyze of infrastructural development, Census data of 2001 and 2011, Google earth data, data from different government sources, like department of food supply and distribution, department of mass education extension and library services, govt. of West Bengal, department of posts, govt. of India, Bank master data for West Bengal, etc. have been considered. Primary data has also been collected for the analysis of water quality of major two rivers of this region, Mahananda and Balason from total 17 sites. Beside these, some ground verification data has also been collected from using handheld Global Positioning System. First objective that is land use and land cover change analysis from 1992 to 2021 has been performed by using maximum likelihood classification technique after different processing of images in the GIS platform. Urban growth pattern has been analyzed by taking Shannon’s entropy in two ways; first by direction-wise and second by distance-wise and beside this, trends of urban growth and its speed of expansion has been identified by urban density analysis and Urban Expansion Intensity Index (UEII). Multi-criteria Decision Making (MCDM) and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) has been taken for the identification of new preferable built-up locations. To analyze the relation between different infrastructural facilities and urban built-up growth Borda rule has been used in this work. Unplanned urban growth has some negative impacts on the natural surroundings. For this, in this work, impacts on river water, vegetation and in local temperature have been calculated and identified. Water Quality Index (WQI) has been used to monitor the river water quality, Vegetation index, such as Normalized Difference Vegetation Index (NDVI) has been performed for the vegetation density analysis and Land Surface Temperature (LST) has been used for analysing temperature fluctuation from 1992 to 2021. Different correlations have been performed for the analysis of relation between different indices and parameters. Brief Outline of the Study: This whole work has been completed by making total seven chapters. First chapter has been divided into two sections. Section A mainly deals with the overview of the whole thesis, problem of the statement, objectives that are taken, hypotheses that has been framed, rigorous literature surveys, about the study area, chapter details, scopes and etc. and Section B describes the general characteristics of the study area, like its different socio-physical characteristics. Second chapter is about the land use and land cover (LULC) dynamics in this study area and it has been done from the year 1992 with a ten year interval and up to 2021. Third chapter is the heart of this thesis that deals with the pattern, trends and speed of urban built-up growth in this region. Urban built-up growth has been calculated by using the extracted built-up features from the satellite images from 1992 with a ten year interval and up to 2021. Like this the trend and speed also has been analyzed and calculated from 1992 to 2021. Fourth chapter has tried to identify the perfect or suitable patches of land for new urban built-up area. This has been done using the data for the year 2021. Fifth chapter is about to study the relation between different infrastructural developments that has taken place in this region with population growth. This study has been carried out for the two years due to the availability of the data and these are, 2001 and 2011. Sixth chapter has tried to identify the problems or negative impacts on different parts of the environment due to the unplanned and fast built-up development. Negative impacts on river water, local temperature and on vegetation have been analyzed by using primary and secondary sources. Lastly, seventh chapter has summarized the major findings of this work and also put some remedial suggestions with concluding remarks to overcome different problems that this area has been facing. Major Findings: This study area lies in the piedmont of Darjeeling Himalaya and that is why the overall gradient maintains from the north and north-west to the south and south-eastern portion with an average height is about more than 150 metres. Connectivity is good in this region with three major railway stations and one airport and some national and international highways are also present here. Population growth due to the natural and migration is huge in this whole region. As this area lies in the piedmont of the Darjeeling Himalaya and Terai tract, so this area from very beginning is dominated by different forest cover and as this area was facing huge population growth due to its locational importance, so drastic positive and negative changes in different categories of LULC has been seen. Vegetation cover has been lost about 56 sq. km. from 1992 to 2021. Agricultural land has been changed into built-up land in Chandmuni tea estate area. Built up land has occupied the core zone of this study area almost entirely. A significant growth of built up land has seen along the highways that radiated from the core city centre. In case of built-up pattern, the whole area from the 1992 is showing dispersed pattern of development instead of compact one. Though in the last calculated year, it is moving towards the compact pattern just because for the restrain of available lands. In first three years, Shannon’s entropy value lies close to the logn value and for that it can be said that this area has experienced an urban sprawl that destructs different productive lands. The analysis revealed that the urban growth in Siliguri Planning Area follow a regular radial pattern. Ribbon pattern of sprawl is observed along the highways and leapfrog pattern towards southern and northern direction due to working opportunities, educational facility and because of tea planted areas of the study area. This study has identified that the maximum suitable area for new built-up development has seen in between the 5 km. to 9 km. from the core of the city and after this, suitable area decreases. Very little amount of lands has been identified as highly suitable area that is 4.58 sq. km. that denotes this study area presently stays at its well condition in case of built-up categories. Further construction will harm the nature. This study area is mainly dominated by medium suitable area and mostly lies along the accessible roads. Maximum areas of highly suitable area and moderate suitable areas come from wasteland and the vegetated land has been preserved. The core area that is Siliguri city is highly dominated by different infrastructural facilities with the highest score in both two years from the beginning as this area holds more than half of the population of the total study area. Other old centres like Bagdogra, Bairatisal also shows comparatively better infrastructural condition in this region. Dabgram and Binnaguri that are very close to Siliguri city have shown a higher score of infrastructural facilities. Analysis of water quality reveals that Balason River is much better than the river Mahananda as Balason mainly flows from the outer periphery of the core area and population pressure is much lower than that of river Mahananda. Water quality is worst in the Airview sampling site of Mahananda in both seasons due to the pressure of population and their different activities. It has been seen that, a significant change of river water quality between upstream and urban and also urban and downstream. In the southern portion of the study area a fresh water canal has mixed up with river Mahananda which makes is better quality in the downstream portion. Land surface temperature has been calculated for the year 1992 and 2021 and it has been seen that about 0.5⁰C temperature has risen in the highest temperature. Maximum temperature has been recorded in the core of the study area and this is due to the highest density of population, maximum traffic movements, absence of thick vegetation cover etc. Vegetation density has also been analyzed in this region from 1992 to 2021 by using Normalized Difference Vegetation Index or NDVI. Results reveal that highest value of NDVI was 0.75 in the year 1992 which has reduced in to 0.43 in the year 2021 due to the expansion of impervious surfaces on the study area. Values of NDVI also suggest that in the year 1992, high dense vegetation was there which has come in the medium dense category in the year 2021. Conclusion: Development and destruction goes in the similar way. If any area has seen any major developmental projects then it is obvious that, same place has faced some kind of destruction in the natural environment. Urban built-up growth and successive population growth is now a natural phenomenon and this will happen and increase its magnitude in near future. Developed countries has faced this situation much before than present developing and underdeveloped countries and that is why they had faced different problems in earlier and now they are in a stable condition due to low and even zero population growth. India falls on the developing one and that is why most of the cities in this country are facing tremendous population growth, unplanned urban built-up growth, shortages of suitable lands for new built-up places, and also problems on different parts of natural environment. Siliguri Planning Area is also facing this same problem mainly after the partition at the time of independence. That is why this work has tried to identify the built-up growth, urban sprawling, and different problems of this growth on natural environment, like on water, forest, and also in the local temperature. Overall study in this region reveals that unplanned and haphazard built-up growth and urban sprawling and huge population growth has taken place and due to this local temperature has risen in this area, high dense and thick vegetation cover has almost lost in thirty years, water quality degrades when river enters in the core urban and highly populated area. Outcomes and findings of this study will help to the locals, planners, government officials, policy makers to take necessary and suitable steps for the proper planning and betterment for this area

Department of Geography & Applied Geography

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